Question 1:
To what extent are census data useful in reconstructing patterns of urbanisation in the colonial context?
Or
“A careful study of census revealed some fascinating trends of urbanisation in 19th century.” Support the statement with facts.
Answer:
A careful study of the data gathered through the census helps a lot in understanding the
trend of urbanisation. It can be examined as under:
(i) The process of urbanisation was sluggish in India after 1800.
(ii) In the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth century, the
proportion of the urban population to the total population of India was very low and
stagnant.
(iii) Between 1900 and 1940 C.E., there was a 13% increase in the urban population whereas
during the same period, there was a 10% increase in the population of the whole country.
(iv) The data helps us in the enumeration of people according to their age, sex, caste,
religion and occupation.
(v) The British lived in the White areas whereas the Indian lived in the Black areas. The
white areas stood for cleanliness and hygiene. On the other hand, the black areas signified
chaos, anarchy, filth and disease.
Question 2:
What do the terms ‘‘White’’ and ‘‘Black’’ Town signify?
Answer:
The British had white skin so they were often called the ‘white’. They suffered from the
white man’s burden and considered themselves as superior to others. On the other hand, the
blacks had brown or black skin. So, they were called the ‘black’, such as the Indians or
Africans. Thus, white signified the superiority over the black.
According to the British, the black areas symbolised chaos and anarchy, filth and disease.
On the other hand, the white area stood for cleanliness and hygiene. In black areas,
epidemics like cholera and plague often spread. So, the British took stringent measures to
ensure sanitation and public health. They wanted to prevent diseases of the black areas. So,
they ensured underground piped water supply. They also introduced sewerage and drainage
system. In other words, the British paid a lot of attention towards sanitary vigilance.
Thus, white towns were those parts of the colonial towns where the white people lived. The
cantonment areas were also developed at safe places. They had wide roads, barracks, churches
and parade ground. Besides, they had big bungalows and gardens. In fact, the White Town
symbolised settled city life. But in the black towns, the Indians lived who were said to be
unorganised and a source of filth and disease.
Question 3:
How did prominent Indian merchants establish themselves in the colonial city?
Answer:
The important Indian traders settled in colonial cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. They were the most rich as they served as agents or middlemen. They built large traditional courtyard houses in the Black Town. They also bought up large tracts of land in these cities. They made investments for the future and wanted to impress their English masters by giving lavish parties during festivals. They also built temples to establish their status and prestige in the society.
Question 4:
What were the motivating factors of town planning of Calcutta (Bengal) ? Describe the process of town planning of Calcutta under the reign of Lord Wellesley.
Or
Examine how the concerns of defence and health gave shape to Calcutta.
Answer:
Right from the early days of their rule in Bengal, the British took the task of town planning
of Calcutta in their own hands. Following were the motivating factors behind it:
(i) The first factor was defence. In 1756 C.E., Calcutta was attacked by the Nawab of
Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah. He captured the small fort, which was built by the British traders
as their depot for goods. The traders of East India Company were not happy with the
sovereignty of the Nawab. They neither wanted to pay the custom duty nor did they wanted to
operate according to the terms given by the Nawab. On the other hand, Siraj-ud-Daulah wanted
to assert his authority.
(ii) The battle of Plassey was fought in 1757 and Siraj ud-Daulah was defeated in it. Then,
Siraj ud-Daulah the East India Company decided to build a new fort, which could not be
easily attacked.
Town Planning : Calcutta was grown from the three villages of Sutnati,
Kolkata and Govindapur. First of all, the Company cleared the land in the southern most
village of Govindapur and ordered the traders and weavers to move out who resided over
there. Around newly built Fort William, a vast open space was left, which locally came to be
known as garer-math or Maidan. The main objective of keeping open spaces was that if enemy
army advances towards the Fort then it could come to a straight line of fire. Once, the
British consolidated their power at Calcutta then they started moving out of the Fort and
began building residences along the periphery of the maidan. In this way the British
settlements in Calcutta came into being. The maidan or vast open space became a landmark. It
was the first significant measure in the town planning of Calcutta.
Town Planning under Lord Wellesley : Lord Wellesley became the Governor-General in 1798. He
built a palace for himself called the ‘Government House’. This building was a symbol of
British authority. When Wellesley arrived at Calcutta, he became very much concerned about
the condition of the Indian part of the city—the excessive vegetation, the crowding, the
dirty tanks, the smells and poor drainage. The British were worried by these conditions
because they believed that the poisonous gases from pools of stagnant water and marshlands
were the main cause of most of the diseases. Even the tropical climate of India was seen as
unhealthy and enervating. There was one way of making the city healthier and that was
creating open places in the city. Wellesley issued an administrative order in 1803 on the
need for town planning. Many committees were set up for this purpose. A number of bazaars,
ghats, tanneries and cremation grounds were cleared. From then, the idea of public health
became an idea, which was used in projects of town planning and town clearance.
Question 5:
Give a brief description of buildings made in a neo-Gothic and Indo-Saracenic styles during the colonial period. Also describe the main features of these styles.
Or
What are the different colonial architectural styles that can be seen in Bombay City?
Or
Explain any two broad architectural styles used by the British for the public buildings in the colonial cities, with examples.
Answer:
(i) Neo-Gothic Style : The buildings constructed in the neo-Gothic
architectural style had high-pitched roofs, pointed arches and extensive decoration. This
style was adopted in the construction of the churches in northern Europe during the medieval
period. It was again revived in England in the mid 19th century. It was the time when the
Bombay government was building its infrastructure. In Bombay, many buildings like the
Secretariat, the High Court and the University of Bombay were built in this style.
Few Indians also gave money for buildings made in this style. For example, Sir Cowasjee
Jehangir Readymoney donated money to build the University Hall. He was a rich Parsi
merchant. In the same way, Premchand Roychand funded the making of the University Library
clock tower. This tower was named after his mother as Rajabai Tower. Indian merchants also
liked the neo-Gothic style because they believed that the building styles of British were
also progressive, like their ideas and it would help make Bombay into a modern city.
But the most spectacular and bewitching example of the neo-Gothic Style is the Victoria
Terminus, the station and head quarters of the Railway Company.
The British invested a lot of money in the design and construction of railway stations in
cities because they were proud of themselves that they had built an All-India railway
network. Central Bombay was dominated by a group of these buildings. Their uniform
neo-Gothic Style gave a special character to the city.
(ii) Indo-Saracenic Style : A new hybrid architectural style was developed
in the beginning of the 20th century, which was a mixture of the Indian style with European
style. This style was given the name of Indo-Saracenic style. The word ‘Indo’ was a short
form of ‘Hindu’ and the word ‘Sarecen’ was used by Europeans to designate Muslims. This
style was inspired by the medieval buildings in India with their domes, chhatris, jalis,
arches, etc. By integrating Indian style with European style, British wanted to express that
they are the legitimate and natural rulers of India. In 1911, the Gateway of India was built
to welcome the King George V and Queen Mary to India. It is the most famous example of the
traditional Gujarati style. The famous industrialist Jamsedji Tata built the hotel Taj Mahal
in a similar style.
Question 6:
How were urban centres transformed during the eighteenth century?
Or
Explain the changes reflected in the history of urban centres in India during the 18th century with special reference to network of trade.
Answer:
In the 18th century, many old towns declined and were replaced by new towns which soon
emerged and developed. As there was a gradual erosion in the power of the Mughals, it caused
an eclipse of various cities associated with their rule. Delhi and Agra, which were the
capitals during the Mughal rule, lost their political authority and grandeur.
(i) Emergence of New Regional Powers : During the 18th century, many new
regional capitals emerged and soon gained importance. Such powers were Lucknow, Hyderabad,
Seringapatam, Poona, Nagpur, Baroda and Thanjavur. Those traders, artisans and
administrators who earlier lived in the Mughal centres of power now left these places and
migrated to new capitals in search of work and patronage. Many mercenaries also came to
these new cities in search of employment.
(ii) Creation of New Urban Settlements : Many officials and local notables
lived in the Mughal cities. They created their new urban settlements such as the ‘Qasbah’
and ‘Ganj’. However, there was an uneven growth of cities. Some places flourished because of
their economic activities but some faced economic decline due to war, plunder and political
instability.
(iii) Growth of Trading Centres : The emergence of urban centres brought
many changes in the network of trade. For example, the Portuguese settled in Panaji in 1510
and the Dutch in Masulipatnam in 1605. The British came in Madras in 1639 and the French
took hold of Pondicherry in 1673. It led to an expansion of economic and commercial
activity. So, many towns grew around these trading centres. By the end of the eighteenth
century, the land-based empires in Asia were replaced by the powerful sea-based European
empires. It ushered in International trade, mercantilism and capitalism in the society.
(iv) Emergence of Colonial Port-Cities : In the mid-eighteenth century, the
commercial centres like Dhaka and Masulipatnam lost their importance. With the British
becoming more powerful after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the trade shifted to cities like
Madras, Calcutta and Bombay, which emerged as new economic capitals due to the trade
activities of East India Company. So, these cities also became centres of colonial,
political and administrative power. By the end of 1800, Madras, Calcutta and Bombay had
become the biggest cities in India.
Question 7:
What were the new kinds of public places that emerged in the colonial city ? What functions did they serve?
Answer:
The Indians found the new colonial cities as bewildering. They were amazed at the new
transport facilities such as horse-drawn carriages, trams and buses. These transport
facilities enabled the people to live at a distance from the city centre. They lived at some
other place and served at some other place.
Emergence of new public places : The new colonial cities saw the creation
of new public places like the theatres, cinema-halls, gardens and public parks. Besides
there were clubs and Garden Houses.
Functions : These public places were very exciting and were an important
source of entertainment. They also increased social interaction due to which people were
able to express their opinions on society and government. They could also question the
practice of social customs.
Question 8:
What were the concerns that influenced town planning in the nineteenth century?
Answer:
After the Revolt of 1857, the British nurtured various concerns and worries regarding
town-planning, which is evident from the following points:
Constant fear of rebellion : Having faced the Revolt of 1857, the white men
in India had a constant fear of rebellion from the Indians. So, they wanted to live in more
secure and segregated enclaves. To ensure their defence, they wanted to live away from the
native people from whom they faced the threat of rebellion. So, they cleared many
agricultural fields and pasture lands and set up urban spaces called the Civil Lines. The
Englishmen lived in these Civil Lines and also set up cantonment areas for the stationing of
the armed forces.
Safe enclaves : The British considered the Civil Lines and cantonment as
safe enclaves as they ensured better defence. These areas were separate from the Indian
towns. They had broad streets and also big bungalows amidst large gardens. They also
had a Church. The Cantonment areas had barracks and parade ground. So, all these places —
Civil Lines as well as cantonment—were a model of ordered urban life. They were also a safe
place for all the Europeans.
Development of white towns : The British were also concerned about
epidemics like cholera and plague, which often spread in India, killing thousands of people.
So, they demarcated both Black and White areas. The black areas symbolised only chaos and
anarchy. They stood for filth and disease. The British always feared that disease would
spread from the Black to the White areas. So, they developed White Towns for themselves.
These towns signified hygiene and cleanliness. The British took stringent administrative
measures to ensure sanitation of these areas. They also regulated the building activity.
They also made arrangements for the underground piped water supply. They cared a lot for
sewerage and drainage systems. In fact, they kept an utmost sanitary vigilance.
Question 9:
To what extent were social relations transformed in the new cities?
Or
Explain the changes that came about in the social life in the new cities under colonial rule.
Or
Describe the social changes brought about in the new colonial cities.
Or
“The colonial cities offered new opportunities to women during the 19th century”. Support the statement with facts.
Answer:
The new colonial cities were the bewildering places for the people of India. Life in these
cities seemed to be in a flux. It was a mixture of richness and poverty, prosperity and
adversity.
(i) Separation of the place of work from the place of residence : The new
colonial cities had new facilities of transport. There were trains, buses and horse-drawn
carriages for the transportation of the people. So, people could live at a distant place
from the main city centre. Gradually, the place of work separated from the place of
residence. The people experienced a new kind of life when they moved from their place of
residence to their factory, office or any other kind of place of work.
(ii) Lack of coherence and familiarity : The new colonial cities lacked
coherence and familiarity. As the cities were big; all the people did not know each other.
They were detached and lacked harmonious relations.
(iii) Creation of public places : The new colonial cities had many public
places, like theatres, cinema-halls and public parks. They were the source of entertainment
that encouraged and provided opportunities for social interaction.
(iv) Emergence of new social groups and middle classes : In the new
colonial cities, people lost their old identities. They formed new social groups. Many
people had left their old cities and settled in the big cities. These people included
clerks, teachers, lawyers, doctors, engineers and accountants. Collectively all of these
formed the middle classes. They had an access to new educational institutions and were also
free to express their views on society and government. They also challenged the practice of
many social customs.
(v) New opportunities for women : In the new colonial cities, the women
were given abundant opportunities to grow and progress. So, many middle-class women
expressed themselves through journals, books and autobiographies. They became more visible
in public. They entered new professions and became teachers, artists and domestic and
factory workers. They moved out of household.
(vi) Opposition to change in traditional patriarchal norms : Social change
is generally not acceptable to traditional and conservative people. So, many people objected
to change in the traditional patriarchal norms. They feared that the education of women
would turn the world upside down. They felt that the education of women would threaten the
very basis of Indian social order. They wanted to see women as mothers and wives and wanted
that all the women should remain confined to the household.
(vii) Emergence of working class : The new colonial cities saw a new class.
It was a class of the labouring poor and of working people. Paupers from the rural areas
rushed to the cities in search of employment. They found new opportunities in new cities.
They were also allured by the new city life and wanted to see things that they had never
seen before. But they were poor and could not afford to live in the city as life here was
very costly and expensive. So, they kept their families in their villages. They worked in
the city and went back to their villages. For them, life in the city was a struggle because
a city had uncertain jobs, expensive food and unaffordable residences.